OSU's robot Cassie ran a 5K

Milestone in Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

A milestone in Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning is reached here with this robot. "Cassie" successfully ran a 5K marathon on one charge with no tether. The applications for this technology are are phenomenal! Consider what impact this will have on the delivery business and being able to help the disabled and elderly. The robot learns how to stay upright by itself and is able to make subtle adjustments. Cassie crashed twice in the 53 minute run around the Oregon State University campus, but the improvements to the deep reinforcement learning algorithm make it possible to dream unimaginable benefits for mankind over the next decade.

Donald Trump Lost

The giant has spoken.  Donald Trump lost.  YouTube says so.  The San Bruno-based company announced today that from here on out it will begin removing certain videos from its platform.  This comes after the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear a Republican effort to overturn the November 3rd, 2020 General Election.  This was the first such case to make it all the way to the high court.  The unanimous decision met the "safe harbor" deadline to overturn the results showing Joe Biden as the winner.

Photo © Henry Mulak

In its blog, YouTube says, "...enough states have certified their election results to determine a President-elect.  Given that, we will start removing any piece of content uploaded today (or anytime after) that misleads people by alleging that widespread fraud or errors changed the outcome of the 2020 U.S. Presidential election, ..."

The decision strikes a blow against conspiracy theorists, led by Donald Trump, who claim widespread fraud.  Without YouTube, such people and organizations will be forced onto platforms which hopefully can be more easily targeted by the rule of law and dealt with accordingly.

A Big Part of the Story

While this is a story about the election, it's also about the power of new media and the transformation in how Americans get information.  Much is being said about misinformation and its impact on American politics, but a kernel of hope can be derived from today's announcement.

For one, we see how giants like Alphabet-owned YouTube and Facebook are, at least, making what appear to be an attempt at culling the truth from what is now a constant flood of information.  But there's also a hopeful message here about where Americans are getting their news.  And that is, as the YouTube blog says: "Authoritative news organizations" are "the most popular videos about the election" on the platform.   As someone who works for one of those "organizations," and knows how much sweat and tears go into honest reporting, I'm am heartened by today's announcement.

Hungary No Longer a Democracy

Hungary is no longer a democracy.  So says Freedom House, a non-governmental organization based in the United States that monitors governments around the world.  If true, Hungary has become the first country within the European Union to abandon its democratic institutions in favor of another form of government.  The title given to this new form of government is "Transitional / Hybrid Regime."  Poland is clearly on the same route, according to Freedom House which put together this graphic to help visualize the transition:

Hungary is led by Prime Minister Victor Orbán who rose to power in 2010, just five years after the central European nation was heralded as a model in the post-Soviet era.  The new report also cites the erosion of democratic institutions, not only in Poland, but the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Latvia and Montenegro.

The report says, "Prime Minister Victor Orbán's government in Hungry has ... dropped any pretense of respecting democratic institutions," becoming "the first country to descend by two regime categories and leave the group of democracies entirely."

Getting up to Speed on Artificial Intelligence

Not a day goes by anymore without a mention of Artificial Intelligence in the mainstream press, and for good reason.  Take, for example, the ongoing coronavirus pandemic.  A company specializing in AI was first to spot the outbreak.  AI and its smaller cousin, Machine Learning, are now being offered up as helping with solutions to the pandemic.  If you’re foggy on what AI is, let’s get you up to speed.  The science has been around since the 1940s.  Now it looks to be maturing enough to really change our world in significant ways, and in dramatic fashion.  More than ever, it needs to be understood so everyone can have a hand in shaping the future.

(Pictured: A neuron modeled after one in our brain) 

The concept of Artificial Intelligence has been around since the development of a mathematical model of a biological neuron.  This was done some 80 years ago.  We’re not talking about just computing.  This is also about learning.  Cognition.  That’s what we refer to when we say “learning.”  Trying to get a computer to do it has proven extremely difficult.  But now, it’s finally taking off.  There are a number of reasons for this, not the least of which is how much digital data we now have.  This is due to the fact that computers have now been in widespread use by the average consumer for some 30 years.

(Pictured: An artificial neuron)

Data is everything.  It used to all be in analog form. It took the human mind to process it.  i.e. Read a book by turning the pages, process what you read and somehow put it to use.  We do that through the 100-billion neurons in our brain, though just how, is something we are still trying to figure out.  Whatever the case, we know that these single-celled neurons work together in amazing ways, making us the most intelligent creatures to walk the planet.  The big issue for computer scientists has been trying to replicate that intelligence for use in machines.

Don’t be misled into thinking that somehow scientists one day just dreamed up the concept of patterning Artificial Intelligence after the neurons in our brain.  Quite the opposite.  We are talking about decades of work by some of the brightest minds in science and engineering.  The work on the development of artificial neurons, an example of one seen above, has its origins in the 1940s.

Developing these artificial neurons into networks that could actually do computations started by the 1980s: “Artificial neural networks,” as we now say.  This is a huge development.  Now we go beyond just putting hardware and programming software together to solve a problem.  We branch into actual learning, Machine Learning.  Training a neural network to recognize faces comes to mind.  There are lots and lots of other applications. More on that in a moment.  And we also need to add that mathematical neural networks are gross oversimplifications of the brain neural networks.  Whatever the case, we first have to explain how AI is NOT a computer program.

Some may get stuck on the now old concept of writing a software program to solve a problem, like how to email someone.  This type of program doesn’t require learning, other than you figuring out how to use it.  Actually getting the program to learn on its own is a whole new ballgame.  One might think, for example, that a programmer just sits down and writes something to recognize what someone is saying.  Speech recognition!  No, no!  What is really happening now is that there are a multitude of already written clever modules prepared and on the shelf for use in making computers think intelligently.

Python is well known when it comes programming a new AI project.  It’s relatively simple and can be easily learned.  R is also at the forefront.  It’s popular because open source programs giving users a lot of latitude in building an intelligent machine.  Lisp, Prolog, Java, Tensorflow and Torch are just some of the others.

(Pictured: An unsolvable mathematical equation) 

Now for the catch. Knowing a computer program and how to code is one thing, but the real barrier you come up against in the field of Artificial Intelligence is the math.  Let’s face it, if you understand the artificial neuron pictured above you would not be reading this.  Note the picture here of the problem no one can solve. You have to know the math to work in AI and that stops many people from even taking up the subject.  AI has become so pervasive that we all need a better understanding of it going forward.  For the record though, the specific math used in AI that we’re talking about is linear algebra, probability, multivariate calculus and optimization.  To demonstrate some of the complexity involved in math for neural networks, in this case “back propagation,” try to get your mind around what an expert offered to explain the problem you see in the picture on the previous page:

“The problem is complex and complicated to untangle the solution and as the number of variables increase (as in our case of 13,002 weights & biases in our neural network of 4 layers with 784 neurons, 16 neurons, 16 neurons & 10 neurons). The complexity of the problem increases astronomically, including the computational effort and the time it takes to solve it. Also, the brute force method would take years to solve this problem. Hence, we use gradient descent to solve this problem by finding the minimum of the cost function and the appropriate weights and biases.”  

The human brain, with more neurons in its pre-frontal cortex than any other, is a neural network.  Advances in AI recently have focused on the development of artificial neural networks, a computing system of highly interconnected elements or notes.  These neural networks are organized in layers and produce responses akin to what might be expected if a human is involved.  Deep learning involves neural networks with many middle layers.  This idea, for the purposes of this paper, is hugely oversimplified.  That’s because “consciousness” has not been achieved by machines, so it cannot be easily explained.  In fact, the big debate in the field right now is if AI will ever match or surpass human intelligence, or consciousness.

There are so many artificial neural networks, and more are being constructed all the time.  The image below cuts to the issue of having more than just an input and an output.  That would simply be linear, something easily accomplished with anything nowadays having to do with input and output.  For example, type on the keyboard in a computer texting program and a word appears.  That’s linear input to output with no computation involved.  But here with NNs we have layers of neurons; what makes them clever is having at least one middle layer to solve complex problems that are more than linear.  The issue with artificial neural networks is that they learn, going from input to an output that is generally unknown. In the following image you see three inputs and one result, or output.  Imagine a computer sensing three inputs, like an alarm at 7 a.m., the sun coming up and a dog barking.  Your brain would go through a series of responses to determine what to do next.  Now imagine training the artificial neural  network to respond and you get an idea about how far we’ve come and what more needs to be accomplished.

(Graphic: an artificial neural network)

The reason we are now hearing so much about AI is that the engineers and scientists have really begun to get their arms around how to make it work.  Evidence of it is everywhere as Artificial Intelligence has hit the mainstream with Apple’s personal assistant Siri, Amazon’s Alexa, Tesla’s self-driving capabilities, Netflix, Pandora, Nest and so on.  Take a deep dive into each of these services and you delve into what AI can really do.  But these businesses only give us limited view of the big picture.

Choose any other segment of society, including government, transportation, law and order, or healthcare and you begin to see just how promising AI can be.  Future prospects for AI in healthcare, for example, include drug creation and helping people make healthier choices and wiser decisions.  That’s just to start. One of the reasons the healthcare aspect of AI is taking longer in its development is privacy issues, but there are an increasing number of companies jumping into its development.  For example, there’s a concept to mine called “precision medicine.” It employs numerous technologies to guide individually tailored diagnosis and treatment for patients.  The technology will learn about you with the assistance of your healthcare provider and then tell the doctor how best to treat you.

The government part of AI freaks people out the most.  The surveillance state is talked about a lot, including the use of cameras in public places to track your movements and alert authorities when you’ve done something wrong.  Now there are even cell phone data maps already at work finding out who are ignoring quarantines in hopes of  stopping the spread of the coronavirus.  You see, the data is already out there since your phone tracks where you are and AI can be employed to determine behaviors.  

In conclusion, we could say that Artificial Intelligence is finally coming of age.  AI has matured enough to become mainstream.  It’s been nearly a century in the making and will likely touch every aspect of our existence in the not-to-distant future.  This means new and wonderful things, but also brings great peril.  The power of AI in the wrong hands is something we need to contemplate, just as we also imagine the dawn of a new era.  This new era will rival the introduction of electricity as well as the Industrial Revolution.  Now we can contemplate not having to think too hard because getting a machine to do a lot of the difficult work is here.  Another way to think about it is that we are freeing our minds up to contemplate an even greater existence for humankind.  What we all do need to do though is become aware of what’s happening with AI.  Think hard now, because Artificial Intelligence offers us something beyond the scope of our imaginations. 

Mark Twain Awards

The Associated Press Television Radio Association is proud to announce the winners of this year's Mark Twain Awards.

Congratulations to our Station of the Year! KUSA - 9News, Denver! Megan Jurgemeyer, KUSA 9News Managing Editor, receives one of 10 trophies from APTRA President John Zuchelli at Saturday night's awards banquet. Winning in Best Newscast categories for three years in a row, 9News demonstrates a commitment to news unparalleled in the region, winning awards for "Bill Stout Memorial Award for Excellence in Enterprise News Coverage," "Best Producer," "Best Videography of Hard News," "Best Videography of Sports," "Videographer of the Year," "Bill Stout Memorial Award for Excellence in Broadcast News," "Best News Writing," and "Best Morning News Broadcast."

"And the Trophy Goes To..."

This year's contest included entries from each of APTRA's 13-state region:

Best Evening News Broadcast:  Television, Class 1, Markets 1-50, KTVU, "The 10 O'clock News."  Oakland

Best Evening News Broadcast:  Television, Class 2, Markets 50+, KGMB, "Hawaii News Now at 5pm," Scott Humber, Mark Platte, Andy Sugg, Linda Siu, and Daryl Huff.  Honolulu

Best News Broadcast:  Radio, Class 1, "UCC Shooting," Joe Simons, Val Stouffer, KXL, Sacramento.

Best News Broadcast:  Radio, Class 2, "The KSRO Morning News," Melanie Morgan, Daniel Trucios, Larry Olson, Tom Benner, KSRO, Santa Rosa

Best Morning News Broadcast:  Television, Class 1, "Old University of Colorado Implosion," Vida Urbonas, Taylor Temby, Ryan Haarer, Eric Kehe, Staff, KUSA, Denver

Best Morning News Broadcast:  Television, Class 2, KGMB, "Sunrise Salute to Veterans," Scott Humber, Mark Platte, Ryan Wilson, KMBH, Honolulu.

Best Anchor or Anchor Team:  Television, Class 1, KNXV, "Searching for the Freeway Shooter," Danielle Lerner, Christopher Sign, Dan Spindle, KNXV, Phoenix

Best Anchor or Anchor Team:  Television, Class 2, "5pm Newscast, August 24, 2015," Kevin Uretsky, Staff, KVEW, Tucson 

Best Anchor or Anchor Team:  Radio, "The KGO Morning News," Jon Bristow, Jennifer Jones Lee, KGO, San Francisco

Combined Categories - Overall Excellence:

Excellence in Enterprise News Coverage - Television:  KUSA, Denver - Fueling the Fire, Chris Vanderveen, Anna Hewson, Nicole Vap, Andy Buck, Chris Hansen

Excellence in Enterprise News Coverage - Radio: OPB, Portland - Unprepared Series, Staff

Excellence in Station Spot News - Television:  KERO, Bakersfield - 23 ABC News at 6: Mudslides; Staff

Excellence in Station Spot News - Radio: KCBS, San Francisco - Balcony Collapse; KCBS News Team

Television Class 1 Winners:

Best Live Coverage of a News Event - KTXL Hometown Heroes Parade - Fox40 Staff

Best Coverage of an Ongoing Story - KNTV - Hospital Plan: Critical Condition - Robert Handa, Ted Case

Best Investigative Reporting - KNBC - L.A.’s Nuclear Secret - Matthew Glasser, Joel Grover, Andres Pruna, Matt Goldberg

Best Spot News Story - KCRA - Vacaville Fire - Alan Blaich, Tom Miller

Reporter of the Year - KNTV - Robert Handa

Best Producer - KUSA - Planned Parenthood Shootings - Will Swope

Best Assignment Team / Live Breaking News - KUSA - Planned Parenthood Shooting - Megan Jurgemeyer, Brooke Way, Ana Campbell

Videographer of the Year - KUSA - Chris Hansen

Best Videography of Hard News - KUSA - Implosion All Angles - Eric Kehe, Corky Scholl, Manny  Sotello, Matt Bell, Scott Wright

Best News Writing - KUSA - Chris Vanderveen

Best Weathercast Segment - KCRA - Meteorologist Tamara Berg, KCRA 3 Weather

Best Editing - KNBC - L.A.’s Nuclear Secret - Andres Pruna, Matthew Glasser

Best Videography of a News Feature - KUSA - The Motel Life - Corky Scholl

Best Serious Feature - KOIN - Presumed Guilty - Jeff Granola, Bill Cortez

Best Light Feature - KUSA - The Midway - Corky Scholl, Chris Vanderveen

Best Special Program - KNBC - 50 Watts - KNBC News Staff

Best Use of Social Media - KNTV - NBC Bay Area’s Social Media Platforms - NBC Bay Area Staff

Best News Website - KNTV - NBCBayArea.com - NBC Bay Area Staff

Best Sports Segment - KNBC - KNBC 11 p.m. Sportscast - Fred Roggin & Angelo Simone

Best Videography of Sports - KUSA - Full Moon Open - Reno Boyd, Brian Olson

Best Live Coverage in Spanish of a News Event - KMEX - San Bernardino Mass Shooting - Susana Meza, Alejandro Mendoza , Sandra O’Neil, Oswaldo Borraez, Norma Roque

Best Coverage in Spanish of an Ongoing News Story - KMEX - Beatification of Monsignor Romero - Susana Meza, Norma Roque, Hector Gonzalez, Raul Gutierrez

Best Assignment Team / Live Breaking News in Spanish - KMEX - San Bernardino Mass Shooting - Annette Garcia, Silvia Alvarez, Edith Granero-Ibrahim

Best Producer in Spanish - KMEX - Univision 34 A Las Seis, Susana Meza

Best Investigative Reporting in Spanish - KMEX - Narco Farmacias - Antonio Valverde

Best Serious Feature in Spanish - KDTV - Translatina - Maria Leticia Gomez, Joe Perry, Luis Felipe Godinez

Best Light Feature in Spanish - KMEX - Lola no es La Unica - Francisco Ugalde, Andreas Bonilla

Best Sports Reporting in Spanish - Race to Success - Antonio Valverde, Francisco Vasquez

Best Videography of a News Feature in Spanish - KTAZ - El Cartel de Sinaloa: Decadas de Poder en Arizona

Radio Class 1 Winners, Markets 1 - 50:

Best Live Coverage of a News Event - KXL - UCC Shooting - Joe Simons, Val Stouffer, Jim Ferretti,Chris Brown Rosemary Reynolds

Best Coverage of an Ongoing Story - OPB Radio - Umpqua Community College Shooting - OPB Radio News Staff

Reporter of the Year - KGO Radio - John Lobertini

Best Spot News Story - KOMO Radio - Charlie Harger

Best Investigative Reporting - KCFR - Missed Treatment: Soldiers with Mental Health Issues Dismissed for For For “Misconduct.” - Michael de Yoanna, Daniel Zwerdling, Robert Little, CPR News Staff, NPR News Staff

Best News Writing - OPB Radio - The New Revolution Hall Finds its Niche in a Glorious Historic Building - Aaron Scott

Best Serious Feature - KCRW -Sawtelle Homeless Encampment - Anna Scott

Best Light Feature - KCFR - On Colorado’s Eastern Plains, Fur Trade Re-Enactors Resurrect History - Megan Verlee

Best Use of Sound / Hard News - KGO Radio - The Napa Quake, One Year Later - Scott Lettieri

Best Use of Sound / Feature - KCBS Radio - Choir - Anna Duckworth

Best Sports Segment - KTAR - Paul Calvisi

Best Sports Reporting - KXJZ - California Kids Prepare for Steel Cage Matches - Bob Moffitt

Best Special Program - KPCC - 50 Years After the Watts Riots - KPCC Staff

Best Use of Social Media - OPB Radio - Staff

Best News Website - KTAR - KTAR.com - Carter Nacke, Tyler Bassett, Marcia Hammond, Paul Ihander, Martha Maurer

Best News Promo - KGO Radio - Traffic Translations - Mike Amatori

Television Class 2, Markets 51+

Best Live Coverage of a News Event - KSBY San Luis Obispo - Refugio Oil Spill - KSBY News Staff

Best Spot News Story - KOLD Tucson - Sahuaro Student Brawl - Sonu Wasu

Best Coverage of an Ongoing Story - KGMB Honolulu - Homeless in Hawaii - Scott Humber, Mark Platte, Daryl Huff, Andy Sugg, Mileka Lincoln

Reporter of the Year - KTUU Anchorage - Blake Essig

Best Investigative Reporting - KVOA Tucson - Deceptive Demotion - Steve Ryan, Michel Marizco

Best Producer - KTUU Anchorage - Bridget Mullen

Videographer of the Year - KTUU Anchorage - Shawn Wilson

Best Videography of Hard News - KTUU Anchorage - They’re Hauling Water - Nikki Carvajal, David Brooks

Best Serious Feature - KGMB Honolulu - Desperate for Diagnosis - Lynn Kawano, Tine Howard, Mark Platte, Scott Humber, Andy Sugg

Best Light Feature - KTUU Anchorage - Alaskan Sap Suckers - Blake Essig, Albert Lutan

Best Videography of a News Feature - KTUU Anchorage - Out in the Breezy - Blake Essig

Best Weather Segment - KTUU Anchorage - Meteorologist Robert Forgit

Best Sports Reporting - KOLO Reno - Paddling to Glory - Ben Ross

Best Videography of Sports - KTUU Anchorage - Nets Bigger Than People. - Kari Bustamante, David Brooks

Best Use of Social Media - KTUU Anchorage - KTUU Staff

Best News Website - KGMB Honolulu - HawaiiNewsNow.com - Mark Platte, Scott Humber, Nicole Bento

Best News Promo - KSBY San Luis Obispo - KSBY News Blind Auditions - Brandon Downing

Best Special Program - KHON Honolulu - Kilauea: Facing the Fire - Howard Dashefsky, Marisa Yamane, Ken Mashiyama, Jennifer Brink

Radio Class 2, Markets 51+

Best Live Coverage of a News Event - KCLU Thousand Oaks - Solimar Fire Live - Lance Orozco, Debra Greene

Best Coverage of an Ongoing Story - KSFR Santa Fe - Child Hunger in New Mexico - Deborah Martinez

Best Spot News Story - KUNR Reno - Anti-Campus Carry Protestors Rally - Anh Gray, Michelle Billman

Best Investigative Reporting - KUSU Logan UT - Recreation: It’s Contentious, It’s Litigious, It’s Fun - Jennifer Pemberton, Ross Chambless, Ryan Cunningham

Reporter of the Year - KCLU Thousand Oaks - “Lance Orozco

Best News Writing - KRCC Colorado Springs - Southwest Chief Effors Receive $15.2-Million Federal Boost - Andrea Chalfin 

Best Use of Sound / Hard News - KUNR Reno - More Noise, Less Space - Julia Ritchey

Best Use of Sound / Feature - Jefferson Public Radio, Ashland - To Shoot or Not to Shoot - Liam Moriarty

Best Serious Feature - KUNR Reno - Capturing Native Languages Before They’re Lost - Michelle Billman

Best Light Feature - KUNC Greeley, CO - The Sandwich Helps Uncover Lost Artist - Stacy Nick

Best Sports Reporting - KCLU Thousand Oaks - L.A. Doesn’t Have Pro Football, But Ventura County Has Cowboys, Rams - Lance Orozco

Best Special Program - KRCC Colorado Springs - Wish We Were here - Noel Black, Jake Brownell

Best News Website - KCLU Thousand Oaks - KCLU News Online - Lance Orozco

Student Categories - Television & Radio

Best Newscast - Student Television - Cronkite News - Jake Gadon, Anchor

Best General News - Student Television - Cronkite News - Phoenix - Phoenix Parking Meters - Megan Thompson

Best Photography - Student Television - Fresno State University - Bulldog Blimp - Fabiola Ramirez

Best Feature - Student Television - Cronkite News - Phoenix - Music Teacher in West Phoenix Making a Difference - Yahaira Jacquez

Best Feature - Student Radio - Fresno State University - Netflix and Chili - Sierra Downey, Laura Tsutsui

Associated Press Television Radio Association President John Zuchelli is proud to have made this announcement.  The Associated Press is the world's largest and oldest news-gathering organization, and is proud to be a part of the commitment to excellence as exemplified in these awards.

Major New Findings: Evidence of Martian Water

NASA reports new findings from its Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) provide the strongest evidence yet that liquid water flows intermittently on present-day Mars.

Using an imaging spectrometer on MRO, researchers detected signatures of hydrated minerals on slopes where mysterious streaks are seen on the Red Planet. These darkish streaks appear to ebb and flow over time. They darken and appear to flow down steep slopes during warm seasons, and then fade in cooler seasons. They appear in several locations on Mars when temperatures are above minus 10 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 23 Celsius), and disappear at colder times.

Photo Credit: NASA - JPL-Caltech - Univiversity of Arizona

“Our quest on Mars has been to ‘follow the water,’ in our search for life in the universe, and now we have convincing science that validates what we’ve long suspected,” said John Grunsfeld, astronaut and associate administrator of NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington. “This is a significant development, as it appears to confirm that water -- albeit briny -- is flowing today on the surface of Mars.”

Water on Mars: Video Showing Evidence of Downhill Flows

These downhill flows, known as recurring slope lineae (RSL), often have been described as possibly related to liquid water. The new findings of hydrated salts on the slopes point to what that relationship may be to these dark features. The hydrated salts would lower the freezing point of a liquid brine, just as salt on roads here on Earth causes ice and snow to melt more rapidly. Scientists say it’s likely a shallow subsurface flow, with enough water wicking to the surface to explain the darkening.

"We found the hydrated salts only when the seasonal features were widest, which suggests that either the dark streaks themselves or a process that forms them is the source of the hydration. In either case, the detection of hydrated salts on these slopes means that water plays a vital role in the formation of these streaks," said Lujendra Ojha of the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech) in Atlanta, lead author of a report on these findings published Sept. 28 by Nature Geoscience.

Ojha first noticed these puzzling features as a University of Arizona undergraduate student in 2010, using images from the MRO's High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE). HiRISE observations now have documented RSL at dozens of sites on Mars. The new study pairs HiRISE observations with mineral mapping by MRO’s Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM).

The spectrometer observations show signatures of hydrated salts at multiple RSL locations, but only when the dark features were relatively wide. When the researchers looked at the same locations and RSL weren't as extensive, they detected no hydrated salt.  

Ojha and his co-authors interpret the spectral signatures as caused by hydrated minerals called perchlorates. The hydrated salts most consistent with the chemical signatures are likely a mixture of magnesium perchlorate, magnesium chlorate and sodium perchlorate. Some perchlorates have been shown to keep liquids from freezing even when conditions are as cold as minus 94 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 70 Celsius). On Earth, naturally produced perchlorates are concentrated in deserts, and some types of perchlorates can be used as rocket propellant.

Perchlorates have previously been seen on Mars. NASA's Phoenix lander and Curiosity rover both found them in the planet's soil, and some scientists believe that the Viking missions in the 1970s measured signatures of these salts. However, this study of RSL detected perchlorates, now in hydrated form, in different areas than those explored by the landers. This also is the first time perchlorates have been identified from orbit.

MRO has been examining Mars since 2006 with its six science instruments.

"The ability of MRO to observe for multiple Mars years with a payload able to see the fine detail of these features has enabled findings such as these: first identifying the puzzling seasonal streaks and now making a big step towards explaining what they are," said Rich Zurek, MRO project scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California.

For Ojha, the new findings are more proof that the mysterious lines he first saw darkening Martian slopes five years ago are, indeed, present-day water.

"When most people talk about water on Mars, they're usually talking about ancient water or frozen water," he said. "Now we know there’s more to the story. This is the first spectral detection that unambiguously supports our liquid water-formation hypotheses for RSL."

The discovery is the latest of many breakthroughs by NASA’s Mars missions.

“It took multiple spacecraft over several years to solve this mystery, and now we know there is liquid water on the surface of this cold, desert planet,” said Michael Meyer, lead scientist for NASA’s Mars Exploration Program at the agency’s headquarters in Washington. “It seems that the more we study Mars, the more we learn how life could be supported and where there are resources to support life in the future.” 

There are eight co-authors of the Nature Geoscience paper, including Mary Beth Wilhelm at NASA’s Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, California and Georgia Tech; CRISM Principal Investigator Scott Murchie of the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland; and HiRISE Principal Investigator Alfred McEwen of the University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory in Tucson, Arizona. Others are at Georgia Tech, the Southwest Research Institute in Boulder, Colorado, and Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géodynamique in Nantes, France.

The agency’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California manages the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Project for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington. Lockheed Martin built the orbiter and collaborates with JPL to operate it.

More information about NASA's journey to Mars is available online at:

https://www.nasa.gov/topics/journeytomars

For more information about the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, visit:

http://www.nasa.gov/mro

Paradigm Shift: Television to Digital Media

The email capped off a bruising week.  "Build Your Channel" says a leader in online video, soliciting me again in the email, hoping to boost viewership on my two "channels."

I couldn't help but think it a bit serendipitous given a hellish week for the giants of media.  It began with Disney, the world's largest entertainment company, admitting television holdings are underperforming.  CBS had already raised concern the day before with its quarterly earnings report.  Investors "panicked,"  slashing almost $60-billion in value from companies like Viacom, Time Warner, and Fox.

It has been "the golden age of television," with an unbelievable amount of programing available on what increasingly seems like an unlimited number of platforms.  It has, at least, up until now.

"Too much"

Now there's word the industry itself is overburdened with programing at a time when digital content is mushrooming.  The head of FX Networks says viewers are going to have an increasingly difficult time cutting through "the clutter:"

http://bigstory.ap.org/urn:publicid:ap.org:b8ee4c48c5bb46249c71bd09ba9ab26a

Here's more on FX Network CEO John Landgraf's comments from the Los Angeles Times:

http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/cotown/la-et-ct-fx-ceo-john-landgraf-there-is-simply-too-much-television-20150807-story.html

Did you catch the number:  370 originally-scripted television series in 2014.  No wonder we were having trouble keeping track on the new shows.

How things will wash out is anyone's guess, but I'm excited.  I've been honing my digital skills, expecting just what's happening.  Now we're on the cusp of the transition.   We've been in the Charlie Chaplin era of online video and now moving into something more sustainable.  Now's the time to jump on board.